Washington State Standards for Science: Grade 10

WA.1. Systems (SYS)

1.1. Properties: Understand how properties are used to identify, describe, and categorize substances, materials, and objects and how characteristics are used to categorize living things.

1.1.1. Physical Systems: Properties of Substances Motion of Objects: Understand the atomic nature of matter, how it relates to physical and chemical properties and serves as the basis for the structure and use of the periodic table. W

1.1.1.a. Identify an unknown substance using the substance's physical and chemical properties.

1.1.1.b. Explain and predict the behavior of a substance based upon the substance's atomic structure, physical properties, and chemical properties.

1.1.1.c. Describe the properties of electrons, protons, and neutrons (i.e., electrons have negative charge and very little mass, protons have positive charge and much mass, neutrons have neutral charge and the same mass as protons).

1.1.1.d. Explain how changing the number of electrons, neutrons, and protons of an atom affects that atom, including atomic name, number, and placement on the periodic table.

1.1.1.e. Explain the similar properties of elements in a vertical column (groups or families) of the periodic table.

1.1.1.f. Predict the properties of an element based on the element's location (groups or families) on the periodic table.

1.1.2. Physical Science: Motion of Objects: Apply an understanding of direction, speed, and acceleration when describing the linear motion of objects. W

1.1.2.a. Describe the linear motion (speed, direction, and acceleration) of an object over a given time interval relative to Earth or some other object (e.g., as a car accelerates onto a freeway the car speeds up from 30 km/hr to 90 km/hr in 10 sec.).

1.1.2.b. Determine and explain the average speed of an object over a given time interval when the object is moving in a straight line.

1.1.3. Physical Systems: Wave Behavior: Analyze sound waves, water waves, and light waves using wave properties, including frequency and energy. Understand wave interference. W

1.1.3.a. Describe the relationship between the wave properties of amplitude and frequency and the energy of a wave (e.g., loud vs. soft sound, high vs. low pitch sound, bright vs. dim light, blue light vs. red light).

1.1.3.b. Explain the relationship between a wave's speed and the properties of the substance through which the waves travels (e.g., all sound regardless of loudness and pitch travels at the same speed in the same air; a wave changes speed only when traveling from one substance to another).

1.1.3.c. Predict and explain what happens to the pitch of sound and color of light as the wave frequency increases or decreases.

1.1.3.d. Compare the properties of light waves, sound waves, and water waves.

1.1.3.e. Describe the effects of wave interference (constructive and destructive).

1.1.4. Physical Systems: Forms of Energy: Analyze the forms of energy in a system, subsystems, or parts of a system. W

1.1.4.a. Explain the forms of energy present in a system (i.e., thermal energy, sound energy, light energy, electrical energy, kinetic energy, potential energy, chemical energy, and nuclear energy).

1.1.4.b. Compare the potential and/or kinetic energy of parts of systems at various locations or times (i.e., kinetic energy is an object's energy of motion; potential energy is an object's energy of position).

1.1.4.c. Measure and describe the thermal energy of a system, subsystem, and/or parts of a system in terms of molecular motion (temperature) and energy from a phase change (e.g., observe, measure, and record temperature changes over time while heating ice to boiling water).

1.1.5. Earth and Space Science: Nature and Properties of Earth Materials: Understand and analyze how the chemical composition of Earth materials (rocks, soils, water, and air) is related to their physical properties. W

1.1.5.a. Correlate the chemical composition of Earth materials (i.e., rocks, soils, water, and gases of the atmosphere) with their physical properties (e.g., limestone, reaction to acid, the conductivity of copper, ice floats on water).

1.1.6. Earth and Space Science: Characteristics of Living Matter: Analyze structural, cellular, biochemical, and genetic characteristics in order to determine the relationships among organisms. W

1.1.6.a. Analyze the relationship among organisms based on their shared physical, biochemical, genetic, and cellular characteristics and functional processes.

1.2. Structures: Understand how components, structures, organizations, and interconnections describe systems.

1.2.1. Systems Structure: Structure of Physical Earth/Space and Living Systems: Analyze how systems function, including the inputs, outputs, transfers, transformations, and feedback of a system and its subsystems. W

1.2.1.a. Describe the function of a system's parts or subsystems.

1.2.1.b. Explain inputs, outputs, transfers, transformations, and feedback of matter, energy, and information in a system.

1.2.1.c. Explain the interconnections between a system's parts or subsystems.

1.2.2. Physical Systems: Energy Transfer and Transformation: Analyze energy transfers and transformations within a system, including energy conservation. W

1.2.2.a. Describe and determine the energy inputted to an object as work (i.e., work on an object is the product of the force acting on the object and the distance the object moves as the force acts).

1.2.2.b. Describe how a machine transfers work and transforms force and distance through a force-distance tradeoff (e.g., a small force acting over a long distance can be transformed to a large force acting over a short distance).

1.2.2.c. Examine and explain how energy is transferred within and among systems.

1.2.2.d. Distinguish conditions likely to result in transfers or transformations of energy from one part of a system to another (e.g., a temperature difference may result in the flow of thermal energy from a hot area to a cold area).

1.2.2.e. Describe what happens in terms of energy conservation to a system's total energy as energy is transferred or transformed (e.g., energy is never 'lost,' the sum of kinetic and potential energy remains somewhat constant).

1.2.2.f. Explain the relationship between the motion of particles in a substance and the transfer or transformation of thermal and electrical energy (e.g., conduction of thermal and electrical energy as particles collide or interact, convection of thermal energy as groups of particles move from one place to another, and light waves transforming into thermal energy).

1.2.2.g. Explain how or whether a phase change, a chemical reaction, or a nuclear reaction absorbs or releases energy in a system (e.g., water vapor forming rain or snow releases energy; water molecules speed up as they absorb energy until the molecules gain enough energy to become water vapor).

1.2.3. Physical Systems: Structure of Matter: Understand the structure of atoms, how atoms bond to form molecules, and that molecules form solutions. W

1.2.3.a. Describe molecules forming a solution (e.g., salt added to water dissolves, forming a salt water solution, until saturation when no more salt will dissolve).

1.2.3.b. Describe how to separate mixtures and or solutions of several different kinds of substances (e.g., sand, sugar, iron filings).

1.2.3.c. Describe the structure of atoms in terms of protons and neutrons forming the nucleus, which is surrounded by electrons (e.g., a helium atom usually has a nucleus formed by 2 protons and 2 neutrons, which is surrounded by 2 electrons).

1.2.3.d. Describe how atoms bond to form molecules in terms of transferring and/or sharing electrons (e.g., sodium atoms transfer an electron to chlorine atoms to form salt).

1.2.4. Earth and Space Systems: Components and Patterns of Earth Systems: Analyze the patterns and arrangements of Earth systems and subsystems including the core, the mantle, tectonic plates, the hydrosphere, and layers of the atmosphere. W

1.2.4.a. Identify and describe sources of Earth's internal and external thermal energy.

1.2.4.b. Explain how plate tectonics is caused by Earth's internal energy (e.g., nuclear energy from radioactivity in the core transforms to thermal energy in the mantle that, through convection, causes the motion of tectonic plates).

1.2.4.c. Correlate Earth's surface features to observable weather patterns (e.g., rain shadow, deserts, rain forest).

1.2.5. Earth and Space Systems: Components of the Solar System and Beyond (Universe): Understand that the Solar System is in a galaxy in a universe composed of an immense number of stars and other celestial bodies. W

1.2.5.a. Describe how the Solar System is part of the Milky Way Galaxy.

1.2.5.b. Compare how stars and other celestial bodies (at least 100 billion) are similar and different from each other (i.e., size, composition, distance from the Earth, temperature, age, source of light, and movement in space).

1.2.5.c. Describe how other galaxies and other celestial bodies appear from Earth.

1.2.6. Living Systems: Structure and Organization of Living Systems: Understand cellular structures, their functions, and how specific genes regulate these functions. W

1.2.6.a. Describe cellular structures that allow cells to extract and use energy from food, eliminate wastes, and respond to the environment (e.g., every cell is covered by a membrane that controls what goes into and out of the cell).

1.2.6.b. Describe how DNA molecules are long chains linking four kinds of smaller molecules, whose sequence encodes genetic information.

1.2.6.c. Describe how genes (DNA segments) provide instructions for assembling protein molecules in cells.

1.2.6.d. Describe how proteins control life functions (e.g., the proteins myosin and actin interact to cause muscular contraction; the protein hemoglobin carries oxygen in some organisms).

1.2.7. Living Systems: Molecular Basis of Heredity: Understand how genetic information (DNA) in the cell is encoded at the molecular level and provides genetic continuity between generations. W

1.2.7.a. Describe the role of chromosomes in reproduction (i.e., parents pass on chromosomes, which contain genes, to their offspring).

1.2.7.b. Describe the possible results from mutation in DNA (e.g., only mutations in sex cells can be passed to offspring; mutations in other cells can only be passed to descendant cells).

1.2.7.c. Describe how organisms pass on genetic information via asexual life cycles (i.e., the replication of genes in asexual reproduction results in the same gene combinations in the offspring as those of the parent).

1.2.7.d. Describe how organisms pass on genetic information via sexual life cycles (i.e., the sorting and the recombination of genes in sexual reproduction results in a great variety of gene combinations and resultant variations in the offspring of any two parents).

1.2.8. Life Systems: Human Biology: Understand human life functions and the interconnecting organ systems necessary to maintain human life. W

1.2.8.a. Describe the components and functions of the organ systems (i.e., circulatory, digestive, reproductive, excretory, nervous-sensory [brain, nerves, spinal cord, hearing, vision], respiratory, and muscular-skeletal systems).

1.2.8.b. Describe relationships among the organ systems of the human body (e.g., the role of the senses and the nervous system for human survival, the relationships between the digestive and excretory systems).

1.2.8.c. Compare human body systems to another organism's body system (e.g., human lungs to plant leaves, human skeletal or circulatory systems to plant stems).

1.3. Changes: Understand how interactions within and among systems cause changes in matter and energy.

1.3.1. Physical Systems: Nature of Force: Analyze the forces acting on objects. W

1.3.1.a. Describe how machines transform forces (e.g., a long lever allows a small downward input force to be transformed into a large upward output force).

1.3.1.b. Describe the strength (in Newtons) and direction of forces acting on an object.

1.3.1.c. Measure and describe the sum of all the forces acting on an object.

1.3.1.d. Describe how forces between objects occur, both when the objects are touching and when the objects are apart.

1.3.1.e. Explain that the strength of a gravitational force between two objects depends on the mass of the objects and the distance between the objects.

1.3.2. Physical Systems: Forces to Explain Motion: Analyze the effects of balanced and unbalanced forces on the motion of an object. W

1.3.2.a. Describe the balanced forces acting on an object moving at a constant speed along a straight line, 1st Law of Motion (e.g., a car traveling at a constant speed of 60 mph on a straight freeway has a force pushing it forward balanced by frictional forces acting in the opposite direction).

1.3.2.b. Explain how unbalanced forces change the speed and/or direction of motion of different objects moving along a straight line, 2nd Law of Motion (e.g., a 2-kg object needs twice the unbalanced force to speed up the same amount as a 1-kg object).

1.3.2.c. Investigate and describe that forces always come in pairs, 3rd Law of Motion (e.g., pull a spring scale against another spring scale, as water blasts out of a bottle rocket two forces act - a force on the water and an equal force on the rocket).

1.3.3. Physical Systems: Conservation of Matter: Analyze the factors that affect physical, chemical, and nuclear changes and understand that matter and energy are conserved. W

1.3.3.a. Investigate and analyze the effect of different factors on the rate of a physical and chemical change (e.g., temperature, surface area, pressure, catalysts).

1.3.3.b. Explain how chemical changes produce substances with different chemical properties and the same total mass.

1.3.3.c. Describe the products of radioactive decay in terms of the conservation of matter and energy (e.g., a radioactive nucleus decays into a new nucleus and emits particles and rays).

1.3.3.d. Recognize and explain that the rate of radioactive decay of a substance is constant, not affected by any factors (e.g., the half-life of a radioactive substance is constant over a long time and a wide range of conditions found on Earth).

1.3.4. Earth and Space Systems: Processes and Interactions in the Earth System: Analyze processes that have caused changes to the features of Earth's surface, including plate tectonics. W

1.3.4.a. Describe the processes that cause the movement of material in Earth's systems (e.g., pressure differences that cause convection resulting in winds, mantle movement, and ocean currents; erosion and deposition).

1.3.4.b. Describe the effects of glaciation and floods on the Pacific Northwest.

1.3.4.c. Describe the causes and effects of volcanoes, hot spots, and earthquakes in Washington State and elsewhere (e.g., subduction of the Juan de Fuca plate causes earthquakes that may cause seismic sea waves; earthquakes along the Seattle fault cause P, S, and surface seismic waves).

1.3.4.d. Explain how substances change as they move through Earth's systems (e.g., carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle, burning of wood and fossil fuels).

1.3.5. Earth and Space Systems: History and Evolution of the Earth: Know Analyze a variety of evidence, including rock formations, fossils, and radioactive decay, to construct a sequence of geologic events. W

1.3.5.a. Explain how decay rates of radioactive materials in rock layers are used to establish the age of fossil remains or the time of geologic events.

1.3.5.b. Describe how rock formations can be used to determine the nature of past geologic events.

1.3.5.c. Correlate evidence of geologic events to the relative and absolute dates of rock layers to construct a sequence of the history of Earth.

1.3.6. Physical Science: Hydrosphere and Atmosphere: Analyze the factors that influence weather and climate. W

1.3.6.a. Explain how energy transfers and transformations among the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and landforms affect climate and weather patterns.

1.3.6.b. Explain how greenhouse gases in the atmosphere affect climate (e.g., global warming).

1.3.6.c. Describe how catastrophic events (e.g., volcanic eruptions, forest fires, asteroid impacts) can cause climate and weather changes.

1.3.7. Physical Science: Interactions in the Solar System and Beyond (Universe): Understand how stars, solar systems, galaxies, and the universe were formed and how these systems continue to evolve. W

1.3.7.a. Explain phenomena caused by the regular and predictable motions of planets and moons in the Solar System.

1.3.7.b. Describe how the Solar System formed.

1.3.7.c. Describe that the Solar System is part of the Milky Way Galaxy and how the Milky Way and other galaxies appear from Earth.

1.3.7.d. Describe the formation and life cycle of stars.

1.3.7.e. Describe the properties of different stars (e.g., size, temperature, age, formation, energy production).

1.3.7.f. Describe how the Big Bang theory explains the observed properties of the universe (e.g., expansion, evolution, structures, element generation by fusion).

1.3.8. Living Systems: Life Processes and the Flow of Matter and Energy: Understand how organisms, including cells, use matter and energy to sustain life and that these processes are complex, integrated, and regulated. W

1.3.8.a. Describe how organisms sustain life by obtaining, transporting, transforming, releasing, and eliminating matter and energy.

1.3.8.b. Describe how energy is transferred and transformed from the Sun to energy-rich molecules during photosynthesis.

1.3.8.c. Describe how individual cells break down energy-rich molecules to provide energy for cell functions.

1.3.9. Living Systems: Biological Evolution: Analyze the scientific evidence used to develop the theory of biological evolution and the concepts of natural selection, speciation, adaptation, and biological diversity. W

1.3.9.a. Describe the factors that drive natural selection (i.e., overproduction of offspring, genetic variability of offspring, finite supply of resources, competition for resources, and differential survival).

1.3.9.b. Explain how natural selection and adaptation lead to organisms well suited for survival in particular environments.

1.3.9.c. Examine or characterize the degree of evolutionary relationship between organisms based on biochemical, genetic, anatomical, or fossil record similarities and differences.

1.3.10. Living Systems: Interdependence of Life: Analyze the living and nonliving factors that affect organisms in ecosystems. W

1.3.10.a. Describe how matter and energy are transferred and cycled through ecosystems (i.e., matter and energy move from plants to herbivores/omnivores to carnivores and decomposers).

1.3.10.b. Compare different ecosystems in terms of the cycling of matter and flow of energy.

1.3.10.c. Describe how population changes cause changes in the cycle of matter and the flow of energy in ecosystems.

1.3.10.d. Describe the living and nonliving factors that limit the size and affect the health of a population in an ecosystem.

WA.2. Inquiry (INQ)

2.1. Investigating Systems: Develop the knowledge and skills necessary to do scientific inquiry.

2.1.1. Investigating Systems: Questioning: Understand how to generate and evaluate questions that can be answered through scientific investigations. W

2.1.1.a. Generate a new question that can be investigated with the same materials and/or data as a given investigation.

2.1.1.b. Generate questions, and critique whether questions can be answered through scientific investigations.

2.1.2. Investigating Systems: Planning and Conducting Safe Investigations: Understand how to plan and conduct systematic and complex scientific investigations. W

2.1.2.a. Make a hypothesis about the results of an investigation that includes a prediction with a cause-effect reason.

2.1.2.b. Generate a logical plan for, and conduct, a systematic and complex scientific controlled investigation with the following attributes: hypothesis (prediction with cause-effect reason), appropriate materials, tools, and available computer technology, controlled variables, one manipulated variable, responding (dependent) variable, gather, record, and organize data using appropriate units, charts, and/or graphs, multiple trials, experimental control condition when appropriate, additional validity measures

2.1.2.c. Generate a logical plan for a simple field investigation with the following attributes: Identify multiple variables; Select observable or measurable variables related to the investigative question

2.1.2.d. Identify and explain safety requirements that would be needed in an investigation.

2.1.3. Investigating Systems: Explaining: Synthesize a revised scientific explanation using evidence, data, and inferential logic. W

2.1.3.a. Generate a scientific conclusion, including supporting data from an investigation, using inferential logic. (e.g., The fertilizer did help the plants grow faster, but had little effect on the number of seeds that germinated. With the fertilizer, the plants matured 35 days sooner than plants without the fertilizer. Almost all of the 30 seeds used germinated, 13 seeds in the fertilized soil and 14 seeds in the soil without fertilizer.)

2.1.3.b. Describe a reason for a given conclusion using evidence from an investigation.

2.1.3.c. Generate a scientific explanation of an observed phenomenon using given data.

2.1.3.d. Predict and explain what logically might occur if an investigation lasted longer or changed.

2.1.3.e. Explain the difference between evidence (data) and conclusions.

2.1.3.f. Revise a scientific explanation to better fit the evidence and defend the logic of the revised explanation.

2.1.3.g. Explain how scientific evidence supports or refutes claims or explanations of phenomena.

2.1.4. Investigating Systems: Modeling: Analyze how physical, conceptual, and mathematical models represent and are used to investigate objects, events, systems, and processes. W

2.1.4.a. Compare how a model or different models represent the actual behavior of an object, event, system, or process.

2.1.4.b. Evaluate how well a model describes or predicts the behavior of an object, event, system, or process.

2.1.4.c. Create a physical, conceptual, and/or mathematical (computer simulation) model to investigate, predict, and explain the behavior of objects, events, systems, or processes (e.g., DNA replication).

2.1.5. Investigating Systems: Communicating: Apply understanding of how to report complex scientific investigations and explanations of objects, events, systems, and processes and how to evaluate scientific reports. W

2.1.5.a. Report observations of scientific investigations without making inferences.

2.1.5.b. Summarize an investigation by describing reasons for selecting the investigative plan; materials used in the investigation; observations, data, results; explanations and conclusions in written, mathematical, oral, and information technology presentation formats; ramifications of investigations to concepts, principles, and theories; safety procedures used

2.1.5.c. Describe the difference between an objective summary of data and an inference made from data.

2.1.5.d. Compare the effectiveness of different graphics and tables to describe patterns, explanations, conclusions, and implications found in investigations.

2.1.5.e. Critique a scientific report for completeness, accuracy, and objectivity.

2.2. Nature of Science: Understand the nature of scientific inquiry.

2.2.1. Nature of Science: Intellectual Honesty: Analyze why curiosity, honesty, cooperation, openness, and skepticism are important to scientific explanations and investigations. W

2.2.1.a. Explain why honesty ensures the integrity of scientific investigations (e.g., explanations in the absence of credible evidence, questionable results, conclusions or explanations inconsistent with established theories).

2.2.1.b. Explain why a claim or a conclusion is flawed (e.g., limited data, lack of controls, weak logic).

2.2.1.c. Explain why scientists are expected to accurately and honestly record, report, and share observations and measurements without bias.

2.2.1.d. Explain why honest acknowledgement of the contributions of others and information sources are necessary (e.g., undocumented sources of information, plagiarism).

2.2.1.e. Explain why peer review is necessary in the scientific reporting process.

2.2.2. Nature of Science: Limitations of Science and Technology: Analyze scientific theories for logic, consistency, historical and current evidence, limitations, and capacity to be investigated and modified. W

2.2.2.a. Describe how a theory logically explains a set of facts, principles, concepts and/or knowledge.

2.2.2.b. Describe a theory that best explains and predicts phenomena and investigative results.

2.2.2.c. Explain how scientific theories are open to investigation and have the capacity to be modified.

2.2.3. Nature of Science: Evaluating Inconsistent Results: Evaluate inconsistent or unexpected results from scientific investigations using scientific explanations. W

2.2.3.a. Evaluate similar investigations with inconsistent or unexpected results.

2.2.3.b. Explain whether sufficient data has been obtained to make an explanation or conclusion (e.g., reference previous and current research; incorporate scientific concepts, principles, and theories).

2.2.3.c. Explain why results from a single investigation or demonstration are not conclusive about a phenomenon.

2.2.4. Nature of Science: Evaluating Methods of Investigation: Analyze scientific investigations for validity of method and reliability of results. W

2.2.4.a. Describe how the methods of an investigation ensured reliable results.

2.2.4.b. Explain how to increase the reliability of the results of an investigation (e.g., repeating an investigation exactly the same way increases the reliability of the results).

2.2.4.c. Describe how the methods of an investigation ensured validity (i.e., validity means that the investigation answered the investigative question with confidence; the manipulated variable caused the change in the responding or dependent variable).

2.2.4.d. Explain the purpose of the steps of an investigation in terms of the validity of the investigation.

2.2.4.e. Explain how to improve the validity of an investigation (e.g., control more variables, better measuring techniques, increased sample size, control for sample bias, include experimental control condition when appropriate, include a placebo group when appropriate).

2.2.4.f. Explain an appropriate type of investigation to ensure reliability and validity for a given investigative question (e.g., descriptive, controlled, correlational, comparative, see Appendix D and Appendix E).

2.2.5. Nature of Science: Evolution of Scientific Ideas: Understand how scientific knowledge evolves. W

2.2.5.a. Explain how existing ideas were synthesized from a long, rich history of scientific explanations and how technological advancements changed scientific theories.

2.2.5.b. Explain how scientific inquiry results in new facts, evidence, unexpected findings, ideas, explanations, and revisions to current theories.

2.2.5.c. Explain how results of scientific inquiry may change our understanding of the systems of the natural and constructed world.

2.2.5.d. Explain how increased understanding of systems leads to new questions to be investigated.

2.2.5.e. Explain how new ideas need repeated inquiries before acceptance.

2.2.5.f. Use new tools to investigate a system to discover new facts about the system that lead to new ideas and questions.

WA.3. Application (APP)

3.1. Designing Solutions: Apply knowledge and skills of science and technology to design solutions to human problems or meet challenges.

3.1.1. Designing Solutions: Identifying Problems: Analyze local, regional, national, or global problems or challenges in which scientific design can be or has been used to design a solution. W

3.1.1.a. Explain how science and technology could be used to solve all or part of a human problem and vice versa (e.g., understanding the composition of an Earth material can be useful to humans, such as copper ore being used to make copper wire).

3.1.1.b. Explain the scientific concept, principle, or process used in a solution to a human problem (e.g., understanding the effect of seismic waves on structures can be used to design buildings to withstand an earthquake).

3.1.1.c. Explain how to scientifically gather information to develop a solution (e.g., perform a scientific investigation and collect data to establish the best materials to use in a solution to the problem).

3.1.1.d. Describe an appropriate question that could lead to a possible solution to a problem.

3.1.1.e. Describe a change that could improve a tool or a technology.

3.1.2. Designing Solutions: Designing and Testing Solutions: Evaluate the scientific design process used to develop and implement solutions to problems or challenges. W

3.1.2.a. Research, propose, implement, and document a scientific design process used to solve a problem or challenge. Define the problem: scientifically gather information and collect empirical data; explore ideas; make a plan; list steps to do the plan; scientifically test solutions; document the scientific design process

3.1.2.b. Evaluate possible solutions to the problem (e.g., describe how to clean up a polluted stream).

3.1.2.c. Evaluate the reason(s) for the effectiveness of a solution to a problem or challenge.

3.1.3. Designing Solutions: Evaluating Potential Solutions: Analyze multiple solutions to a problem or challenge. W

3.1.3.a. Describe the criteria to evaluate an acceptable solution to the problem or challenge.

3.1.3.b. Describe the reason(s) for the effectiveness of a solution to a problem or challenge using scientific concepts and principles.

3.1.3.c. Describe the consequences of the solution to the problem or challenge (e.g., using rocks on the edge of a stream to prevent erosion may destroy habitat).

3.1.3.d. Describe how to change a system to solve a problem or improve a solution to a problem.

3.1.3.e. Compare the effectiveness of different solutions to a problem or challenge based on criteria, using scientific concepts and principles.

3.2. Science, Technology, and Society: Analyze how science and technology are human endeavors, interrelated to each other, society, the workplace, and the environment.

3.2.1. Science, Technology and Society: All Peoples Contribute to Science and Technology: Analyze how scientific knowledge and technological advances discovered and developed by individuals and communities in all cultures of the world contribute to changes in societies.

3.2.1.a. Explain how life has changed throughout history because of scientific knowledge and technological advances from a variety of peoples.

3.2.1.b. Compare the impacts of diverse cultures and individuals on science and technology.

3.2.2. Science, Technology and Society: Relationship of Science and Technology: Analyze how the scientific enterprise and technological advances influence and are influenced by human activity. W

3.2.2.a. Describe how science and/or technology have led to a given social or economic development.

3.2.2.b. Explain risks associated with investigations involving living things (e.g., drug trials on animals, testing of genetically engineered plants, release of African snails into the environment after experimentation).

3.2.2.c. Identify the limits of scientific research in solving a given social, environmental, and/or economic problem.

3.2.2.d. Compare advantages and/or disadvantages of using new technology or science in terms of ethics, politics, and environmental considerations.

3.2.2.e. Explain the concept of proprietary discovery (e.g., patents on genes).

3.2.3. Science, Technology and Society: Careers and Occupations Using Science, Mathematics, and Technology: Analyze the scientific, mathematical, and technological knowledge, training, and experience needed for occupational/career areas of interest.

3.2.3.a. Research and report on educational requirements associated with an occupation(s)/career(s) of interest.

3.2.3.b. Examine the scientific, mathematical, and technological knowledge, training, and experience needed for occupational/career areas of interest.

3.2.4. Science, Technology and Society: Environmental and resource Issues: Analyze the effects human activities have on Earth's capacity to sustain biological diversity. W

3.2.4.a. Explain how the use of renewable and nonrenewable natural resources affects the sustainability of an ecosystem.

3.2.4.b. Explain how human activities affect Earth's capacity to sustain biological diversity (e.g., global warming, ozone depletion).

9-12.SYS. Predictability and Feedback: In prior grades, students learned how to simplify and analyze complex situations by thinking about them as systems. In grades 9-12, students learn to construct more sophisticated system models, including the concept of feedback. Students are expected to determine whether or not systems analysis will be helpful in a given situation and if so, to describe the system, including subsystems, boundaries, flows, and feedbacks. The next step is to use the system as a dynamic model to predict changes. Students are also expected to recognize that even the most sophisticated models may not accurately predict how the real world functions. This deep understanding of systems and ability to use systems analysis is an essential tool both for scientific inquiry and for technological design.

9-12.SYSA. Students know that feedback is a process in which the output of a system provides information used to regulate the operation of the system. Positive feedback increases the disturbance to a system. Negative feedback reduces the disturbance to a system.

9-12.SYSA.1. Students are expected to give examples of a positive feedback system and explain its regulatory mechanism (e.g., global warming causes Earth's ice caps to melt, reflecting less energy to space, increasing temperatures).

9-12.SYSA.2. Students are expected to give examples of a negative feedback system and explain its regulatory mechanism (e.g., when a human body overheats, it produces sweat that cools the body by evaporation).

9-12.SYSB. Students know that systems thinking can be especially useful in analyzing complex situations. To be useful, a system needs to be specified as clearly as possible.

9-12.SYSB.1. Students are expected to determine if a systems approach will be helpful in answering a question or solving a problem.

9-12.SYSB.2. Students are expected to represent the system with a diagram specifying components, boundaries, flows, and feedbacks.

9-12.SYSB.3. Students are expected to describe relevant subsystems and the larger system that contains the system being analyzed.

9-12.SYSB.4. Students are expected to determine how the system functions with respect to other systems.

9-12.SYSC. Students know that in complex systems, entirely new and unpredictable properties may emerge. Consequently, modeling a complex system in sufficient detail to make reliable predictions may not be possible.

9-12.SYSC.1. Students are expected to create a simplified model of a complex system. Trace the possible consequences of a change in one part of the system and explain how the simplified model may not be adequate to reliably predict consequences.

9-12.SYSD. Students know that systems can be changing or in equilibrium.

9-12.SYSD.1. Students are expected to analyze whether or not a system (e.g., population) is changing or in equilibrium.

9-12.SYSD.2. Students are expected to determine whether a state of equilibrium is static or dynamic (i.e., inflows equal outflows).

9-12.INQ. Conducting Analyses and Thinking Logically: In prior grades, students learned to revise questions so they can be answered scientifically. In grades 9-12, students extend and refine their understanding of the nature of inquiry and their ability to formulate questions, propose hypotheses, and design, conduct, and report on investigations. Refinement includes an increased understanding of the kinds of questions that scientists ask and how the results reflect the research methods and the criteria that scientific arguments are judged by. Increased abilities include competence in using mathematics, a closer connection between student-planned investigations and existing knowledge, reflecting increased knowledge and improvements in communication and collaboration, and participation in a community of learners.

9-12.INQA. Question: Students know that scientists generate and evaluate questions to investigate the natural world.

9-12.INQA.1. Students are expected to generate and evaluate a question that can be answered through a scientific investigation. Critique questions generated by others and explain whether or not the questions are scientific.

9-12.INQB. Investigate: Students know that scientific progress requires the use of various methods appropriate for answering different kinds of research questions, a thoughtful plan for gathering data needed to answer the question, and care in collecting, analyzing, and displaying the data.

9-12.INQB.1. Students are expected to plan and conduct a scientific investigation, choosing a method appropriate to the question being asked.

9-12.INQB.2. Students are expected to collect, analyze, and display data using calculators, computers, or other technical devices when available.

9-12.INQC. Explain: Students know that conclusions must be logical, based on evidence, and consistent with prior established knowledge.

9-12.INQC.1. Students are expected to draw conclusions supported by evidence from the investigation and consistent with established scientific knowledge.

9-12.INQC.2. Students are expected to analyze alternative explanations and decide which best fits the data.

9-12.INQD. Communicate Clearly: Students know that the methods and procedures that scientists use to obtain evidence must be clearly reported to enhance opportunities for further investigation.

9-12.INQD.1. Students are expected to write a detailed laboratory report that includes: the question that motivated the study, a justification for the kind of investigation chosen, hypotheses (if any), a description of what was done, a summary of data in tables and graphs, and a conclusion, based on the evidence, that responds to the question.

9-12.INQE. Model: Students know that the essence of scientific investigation involves the development of a theory or conceptual model that can generate testable predictions.

9-12.INQE.1. Students are expected to formulate one or more hypotheses based on a model or theory of a causal relationship. Demonstrate creativity and critical thinking to formulate and evaluate the hypotheses.

9-12.INQF. Communicate: Students know that science is a human endeavor that involves logical reasoning and creativity and entails the testing, revision, and occasional discarding of theories as new evidence comes to light.

9-12.INQF.1. Students are expected to evaluate an investigation to determine if it was a valid means of answering the question, and whether or not the results were reliable.

9-12.INQF.2. Students are expected to describe the development of a scientific theory that illustrates logical reasoning, creativity, testing, revision, and replacement of prior ideas in light of new evidence.

9-12.INQG. Intellectual Honesty: Students know that public communication among scientists is an essential aspect of research. Scientists evaluate the validity of one another's investigations, check the reliability of results, and explain inconsistencies in findings.

9-12.INQG.1. Students are expected to participate in a scientific discussion about their own investigations and those performed by others.

9-12.INQG.2. Students are expected to respond to questions and criticisms, and if appropriate, revise explanations based on these discussions.

9-12.INQH. Intellectual Honesty: Students know that scientists carefully evaluate sources of information for reliability before using that information. When referring to the ideas or findings of others, they cite their sources of information.

9-12.INQH.1. Students are expected to provide appropriate citations for all ideas, findings, and information used in any and all written reports.

9-12.INQH.2. Students are expected to explain the consequences for failure to provide appropriate citations.

9-12.APP. Science, Technology, and Society: In prior grades, students learn to work with other members of a team to apply the full process of technological design and relevant science concepts to solve problems. In grades 9-12, students apply what they have learned to address societal issues and cultural differences. Students learn that science and technology are interdependent, that science and technology influence society, and that society influences science and technology. Students continue to increase their abilities to work with other students and to use mathematics and information technologies (when available) to solve problems. They transfer insights from those increased abilities to considering local, regional, and global issues. These insights and capabilities will help prepare students to solve societal and personal problems in future years.

9-12.APPA. Students know that science affects society and cultures by influencing the way many people think about themselves, others, and the environment. Society also affects science by its prevailing views about what is important to study, and by deciding what research will be funded.

9-12.APPA.1. Students are expected to describe ways that scientific ideas have influenced society or the development of differing cultures.

9-12.APPA.2. Students are expected to list questions that scientists investigate that are stimulated by the needs of society (e.g., medical research, global climate change).

9-12.APPB. Students know that the technological design process begins by defining a problem in terms of criteria and constraints, conducting research, and generating several different solutions.

9-12.APPB.1. Students are expected to work collaboratively with other students to generate ideas for solving a problem. Identify criteria and constraints, research the problem, and generate several possible solutions.

9-12.APPC. Students know that choosing the best solution involves comparing alternatives with respect to criteria and constraints, then building and testing a mode or other representation of the final design.

9-12.APPC.1. Students are expected to choose the best solution for a problem, create a model or drawing of the final design, and devise a way to test it. Redesign the solution, if necessary, then present it to peers.

9-12.APPD. Students know that the ability to solve problems is greatly enhanced by use of mathematics and information technologies.

9-12.APPD.1. Students are expected to use proportional reasoning, functions, graphing, and estimation to solve problems.

9-12.APPD.2. Students are expected to use computers, probes, and software when available to collect, display, and analyze data.

9-12.APPE. Students know that perfect solutions do not exist. All technological solutions involve trade-offs in which decisions to include more of one quality means less of another. All solutions involve consequences, some intended others not.

9-12.APPE.1. Students are expected to analyze a societal issue that may be addressed through science and/or technology. Compare alternative solutions by considering trade-offs and unintended consequences (e.g., removing dams to increase salmon spawning).

9-12.APPF. Students know that it is important for all citizens to apply science and technology to critical issues that influence society.

9-12.APPF.1. Students know that critically analyze scientific information in current events to make personal choices, or to inform public-policy decisions.

WA.4. Life Science (LS)

PS1. Force and Motion (PS1)

9-11.PS1. Newton's Laws: In prior grades, students learned to measure, record, and calculate the average speed of objects, and to tabulate and graph the results. In grades 9-11, students learn to apply Newton's Laws of Motion and Gravity both conceptually and quantitatively. Students are able to calculate average speed, velocity, and acceleration. Students also develop an understanding of forces due to gravitational and electrical attraction. These fundamental concepts enable students to understand the forces that govern the observable world and provide a foundation for a full course in physics.

9-11.PS1A. Students know that average velocity is defined as a change in position with respect to time. Velocity includes both speed and direction.

9-11.PS1B. Students know that average acceleration is defined as a change in velocity with respect to time. Acceleration indicates a change in speed and/or a change in direction.

9-11.PS1C. Students know that an object at rest will remain at rest unless acted on by an unbalanced force. An object in motion at constant velocity will continue at the same velocity unless acted on by an unbalanced force. (Newton's 1st Law of Motion, the = Law of Inertia)

9-11.PS1D. Students know that a net force will cause an object to accelerate or change direction. A less massive object will speed up more quickly than a more massive object subjected to the same force. (Newton's 2nd Law of Motion, F=ma)

9-11.PS1E. Students know that whenever one object exerts a force on another object, a force of equal magnitude is exerted on the first object in the opposite direction. (Newton's 3rd Law of Motion)

9-11.PS1F. Students know that gravitation is a universal attractive force by which objects with mass attract one another. The gravitational force between two objects is proportional to their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the objects. (Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation)

9-11.PS1G. Students know that electrical force is a force of nature, independent of gravity that exists between charged objects. Opposite charges attract while like charges repel.

9-11.PS1H. Students know that electricity and magnetism are two aspects of a single electromagnetic force. Moving electric charges produce magnetic forces, and moving magnets produce electric forces.

PS2. Matter: Properties and Change (PS2)

9-11.PS2. Chemical Reactions: In prior years, students learned the basic concepts behind the atomic nature of matter. In grades 9-11, students learn about chemical reactions, starting with the structure of an atom. They learn that the Periodic Table groups elements with similar physical and chemical properties. With grounding in atomic structure, students learn about the formation of molecules and ions, compounds and solutions, and the details of a few common chemical reactions. They also learn about nuclear reactions and the distinction between fusion and fission. These concepts about the fundamental properties of matter will help students understand chemical reactions that are important in modern society and lay the groundwork for both chemistry and life science.

9-11.PS2A. Students know that atoms are composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons. The nucleus of an atom takes up very little of the atom's volume but makes up almost all of the mass. The nucleus contains protons and neutrons, which are much more massive than the electrons surrounding the nucleus. Protons have a positive charge, electrons are negative in charge, and neutrons have no net charge.

9-11.PS2B. Students know that atoms of the same element have the same number of protons. The number and arrangement of electrons determines how the atom interacts with other atoms to form molecules and ionic compounds.

9-11.PS2C. Students know that when elements are listed in order according to the number of protons, repeating patterns of physical and chemical properties identify families of elements with similar properties. This Periodic Table is a consequence of the repeating pattern of outermost electrons.

9-11.PS2D. Students know that ions are produced when atoms or molecules lose or gain electrons, thereby gaining a positive or negative electrical charge. Ions of opposite charge are attracted to each other, forming ionic bonds. Chemical formulas for ionic compounds represent the proportion of ion of each element in the ionic array.

9-11.PS2E. Students know that compounds are composed of two or more elements bonded together in a fixed proportion by sharing electrons between atoms, forming covalent bonds. Such compounds consist of well-defined molecules. Formulas of covalent compounds represent the types and number of atoms of each element in each molecule.

9-11.PS2F. Students know that all forms of life are composed of large molecules that contain carbon. Carbon atoms bond to one another and other elements by sharing, forming covalent bonds. Stable molecules of carbon have four covalent bonds per carbon atom.

9-11.PS2G. Students know that chemical reactions change the arrangement of atoms in the molecules of substances. Chemical reactions release or acquire energy from their surroundings and result in the formation of new substances.

9-11.PS2H. Students know that solutions are mixtures in which particles of one substance are evenly distributed through another substance. Liquids are limited in the amount of dissolved solid or gas that they can contain. Aqueous solutions can be described by relative quantities of the dissolved substances and acidity or alkalinity (pH).

9-11.PS2I. Students know that the rate of a physical or chemical change may be affected by factors such as temperature, surface area, and pressure.

9-11.PS2J. Students know that the number of neutrons in the nucleus of an atom determines the isotope of the element. Radioactive isotopes are unstable and emit particles and/or radiation. Though the timing of a single nuclear decay is unpredictable, a large group of nuclei decay at a predictable rate, making it possible to estimate the age of materials that contain radioactive isotopes.

9-11.PS2K. Students know that nuclear reactions convert matter into energy, releasing large amounts of energy compared with chemical reactions. Fission is the splitting of a large nucleus into smaller pieces. Fusion is the joining of nuclei and is the process that generates energy in the Sun and other stars.

PS3. Energy: Transfer, Transformation, and Conservation (PS3)

9-11.PS3. Transformation and Conservation of Energy: In prior grades, students learned to apply the concept of ''energy'' in various settings. In grades 9-11, students learn fundamental concepts of energy, including the Law of Conservation of Energy--that the total amount of energy in a closed system is constant. Other key concepts include gravitational potential and kinetic energy, how waves transfer energy, the nature of sound and the electromagnetic spectrum. Energy concepts are essential for understanding all of the domains of science, from the ways that organisms get energy from their environment, to the energy that drives weather systems and volcanoes.

9-11.PS3A. Students know that although energy can be transferred from one object to another and can be transformed from one form of energy to another form, the total energy in a closed system is constant and can neither be created nor destroyed. (Conservation of Energy)

9-11.PS3B. Students know that kinetic energy is the energy of motion. The kinetic energy of an object is defined by the equation: Ek = 1/2 mv2

9-11.PS3C. Students know that gravitational potential energy is due to the separation of mutually attracting masses. Transformations can occur between gravitational potential energy and kinetic energy, but the total amount of energy remains constant.

9-11.PS3D. Students know that waves (including sound, seismic, light, and water waves) transfer energy when they interact with matter. Waves can have different wavelengths, frequencies, amplitudes, and travel at different speeds.

9-11.PS3E. Students know that electromagnetic waves differ from physical waves because they do not require a medium and they all travel at the same speed in a vacuum. This is the maximum speed that any object or wave can travel. Forms of electromagnetic waves include X-rays, ultraviolet, visible light, infrared, and radio.

ES1. Energy: Transfer, Transformation, and Conservation (ES1)

9-11.ES1. Evolution of the Universe: In prior grades, students learned about other objects in the Solar System, and how they are held together by a force called ''gravity.'' In grades 9-11, students learn the current scientific theory about the origin of the universe and subsequent formation of our Solar System. These discoveries are based on the important concept that the physical principles that apply today on Earth apply everywhere in the universe, now and in the distant past. These fundamental concepts help students make coherent sense of the universe and engage in further wondering and learning.

9-11.ES1A. Students know that stars have ''life cycles.'' During their active periods, stars produce heavier elements, starting with the fusion of hydrogen to form helium. The heaviest elements are formed when massive stars ''die'' in massive explosions.

9-11.ES1B. Students know that the Big Bang theory of the origin of the universe is based on evidence (e.g., red shift) that all galaxies are rushing apart from one another. As space expanded, and matter began to cool, gravitational attraction pulled clumps of matter together, forming the stars and galaxies, clouds of gas and dust, and planetary systems that we see today. If we were to run time backwards we would find that all of the galaxies were in the same place 14.7 billion years ago.

ES2. Earth Systems, Structures, and Processes (ES2)

9-11.ES2. Energy in Earth Systems: In prior grades, students learned about planet Earth as an interacting system of solids, liquids, and gases, and about the water cycle, the rock cycle, and the movement of crustal plates. In grades 9-11, students learn how the uneven heating of Earth's surface causes differences in climate in different parts of the world, and how the tilt of Earth's axis with respect to the plane of its orbit around the Sun causes seasonal variations. Students also learn about the essential biogeochemical cycles that continuously move elements such as carbon and nitrogen through Earth systems. These major ideas about energy inputs and outputs in and around the Earth help students understand Earth as a dynamic system.

9-11.ES2A. Students know that global climate differences result from the uneven heating of Earth's surface by the Sun. Seasonal climate variations are due to the tilt of Earth's axis with respect to the plane of Earth's nearly circular orbit around the Sun.

9-11.ES2B. Students know that climate is determined by energy transfer from the sun at and near Earth's surface. This energy transfer is influenced by dynamic processes such as cloud cover and Earth's rotation, as well as static conditions such as proximity to mountain ranges and the ocean. Human activities, such as burning of fossil fuels, also affect the global climate.

9-11.ES2C. Students know that earth is a system that contains a fixed amount of each stable chemical element, existing in different chemical forms. Each element on Earth moves among reservoirs in the solid Earth, oceans, atmosphere, and organisms as part of biogeochemical cycles, driven by energy from Earth's interior and from the Sun.

9-11.ES2D. Students know that the earth does not have infinite resources; increasing human consumption places severe stress on the natural processes that renew some resources and it depletes those resources that cannot be renewed.

ES3. Earth History (ES3)

9-11.ES3. Evolution of the Earth: In prior grades, students learned about a few of the methods that have made it possible to uncover the history of our planet. In grades 9-11, students learn about the major changes in Earth systems over geologic time and some of the methods used to gather evidence of those changes. Methods include observation and measurement of sediment layers, using cores drilled from the sea bottom and from ancient glaciers, and the use of radioactive isotopes. Findings of Earth history include the existence of life as early as nearly 4 billion years ago and major changes in the composition of Earth's atmosphere.

9-11.ES3A. Students know that interactions among the solid Earth, the oceans, the atmosphere, and organisms have resulted in the ongoing evolution of the Earth system. We can observe changes such as earthquakes and volcanic eruptions on a human time scale, but many processes such as mountain building and plate movements take place over hundreds of millions of years.

9-11.ES3B. Students know that geologic time can be estimated by several methods (e.g., counting tree rings, observing rock sequences, using fossils to correlate sequences at various locations, and using the known decay rates of radioactive isotopes present in rocks to measure the time since the rock was formed).

9-11.ES3C. Students know that evidence for one-celled forms of life--the bacteria--extends back billions of years. The appearance of life on Earth caused dramatic changes in the composition of Earth's atmosphere, which did not originally contain oxygen.

9-11.ES3D. Students know that data gathered from a variety of methods have shown that Earth has gone through a number of periods when Earth was much warmer and much colder than today.

LS1. Structures and Functions of Living Organisms (LS1)

9-11.LS1. Processes Within Cells: In prior grades, students learned that all living systems are composed of cells, which make up tissues, organs, and organ systems. In grades 9-11, students learn that cells have complex molecules and structures that enable them to carry out life functions such as photosynthesis and respiration and pass on their characteristics to future generations. Information for producing proteins and reproduction is coded in DNA and organized into genes in chromosomes. This elegant yet complex set of processes explains how life forms replicate themselves with slight changes that make adaptations to changing conditions possible over long periods of time. These processes that occur within living cells help students understand the commonalities among the diverse living forms that populate Earth today.

9-11.LS1A. Students know that carbon-containing compounds are the building blocks of life. Photosynthesis is the process that plant cells use to combine the energy of sunlight with molecules of carbon dioxide and water to produce energy-rich compounds that contain carbon (food) and release oxygen.

9-11.LS1B. Students know that the gradual combustion of carbon-containing compounds within cells, called cellular respiration, provides the primary energy source of living organisms; and the combustion of carbon by burning of fossil fuels provides the primary energy source for most of modern society.

9-11.LS1C. Students know that cells contain specialized parts for determining its essential functions, such as regulation of cellular activities, energy capture and release, formation of proteins, waste disposal, the transfer of information, and movement.

9-11.LS1D. Students know that the cell is surrounded by a membrane that separates the interior of the cell from the outside world and determines which substances may enter and which may leave the cell.

9-11.LS1E. Students know that the genetic information responsible for inherited characteristics is encoded in the DNA molecules in chromosomes. DNA is composed of four subunits (A,T,C,G). The sequence of subunits in a gene specifies the amino acids needed to make a protein. Proteins express inherited traits (e.g., eye color, hair texture) and carry out most cell function.

9-11.LS1F. Students know that all of the functions of the cell are based on chemical reactions. Food molecules are broken down to provide the energy and the chemical constituents needed to synthesize other molecules. Breakdown and synthesis are made possible by proteins called enzymes. Some of these enzymes enable the cell to store energy in special chemicals, such as ATP, that are needed to drive the many other chemical reactions in a cell.

9-11.LS1G. Students know that cells use the DNA that forms their genes to encode enzymes and other proteins that allow a cell to grow and divide to produce more cells, and respond to the environment.

9-11.LS1H. Students know that genes are carried on chromosomes. Animal cells contain two copies of each chromosome with genetic information that regulate body structure and functions. Cells divide by a process called mitosis, in which the genetic information is copied so that each new cell contains exact copies of the original chromosomes.

9-11.LS1I. Students know that egg and sperm cells are formed by a process called meiosis in which each resulting cell contains only one representative chromosome from each pair found in the original cell. Recombination of genetic information during meiosis scrambles the genetic information, allowing for new genetic combinations and characteristics in the offspring. Fertilization restores the original number of chromosome pairs and reshuffles the genetic information, allowing for variation among offspring.

LS2. Ecosystems (LS2)

9-11.LS2. Maintenance and Stability of Populations: In prior grades, students learned to apply key concepts about ecosystems to understand the interactions among organisms and the nonliving environment. In grades 9-11, students learn about the factors that foster or limit growth of populations within ecosystems and that help to maintain the health of the ecosystem overall. Organisms participate in the cycles of matter and flow of energy to survive and reproduce. Given abundant resources, populations can increase at rapid rates. But living and nonliving factors limit growth, resulting in ecosystems that can remain stable for long periods of time. Understanding the factors that affect populations is important for many societal issues, from decisions about protecting endangered species to questions about how to meet the resource needs of civilization while maintaining the health and sustainability of Earth's ecosystems.

9-11.LS2A. Students know that matter and energy is transferred and cycled through living and nonliving components in ecosystems. The cycling of matter and energy is important for maintaining the health and sustainability of an ecosystem.

9-11.LS2B. Students know that living organisms have the capacity to produce very large populations. Population density is the number of individuals of a particular population living in a given amount of space.

9-11.LS2C. Students know that population growth is limited by the availability of matter and energy found in resources, the size of the environment, and the presence of competing and/or predatory organisms.

9-11.LS2D. Students know that scientists represent systems in the natural world, using mathematical models.

9-11.LS2E. Students know that interrelationships of organisms may generate ecosystems that are stable for hundreds or thousands of years. Biodiversity refers to the different kinds of organisms in specific ecosystems or on the planet as a whole.

9-11.LS2F. Students know that the concept of sustainable development supports adoption of policies that enable people to obtain the resources they need today, without limiting the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Sustainable processes include substituting renewable for nonrenewable resources, recycling, and using fewer resources.

LS3. Biological Evolution (LS3)

9-11.LS3. Mechanisms of Evolution: In prior grades, students learned how the traits of organisms are passed on through the transfer of genetic information during reproduction. In grades 9-11, students learn about the factors that underlie biological evolution: variability of offspring, population growth, a finite supply of resources, and natural selection. Both the fossil record and analyses of DNA have made it possible to better understand the causes of variability and to determine how the many species alive today are related. Evolution is the major framework that explains the amazing diversity of life on our planet and guides the work of the life sciences.

9-11.LS3A. Students know that biological evolution is due to: (1) genetic variability of offspring due to mutations and genetic recombination, (2) the potential for a species to increase its numbers, (3) a finite supply of resources, and (4) selection by the environment for those offspring better able to survive and produce offspring.

9-11.LS3B. Students know that random changes in the genetic makeup of cells and organisms (mutations) can cause changes in their physical characteristics or behaviors. If the genetic mutations occur in eggs or sperm cells, the changes will be inherited by offspring. While many of these changes will be harmful, a small minority may allow the offspring to better survive and reproduce.

9-11.LS3C. Students know that the great diversity of organisms is the result of more than 3.5 billion years of evolution that has filled available ecosystem niches on Earth with life forms.

9-11.LS3D. Students know that the fossil record and anatomical and molecular similarities observed among diverse species of living organisms provide evidence of biological evolution.

9-11.LS3E. Students know that biological classifications are based on how organisms are related, reflecting their evolutionary history. Scientists infer relationships from physiological traits, genetic information, and the ability of two organisms to produce fertile offspring.